Historical Materialism Essay Example for Free

Historical Materialism Essay Social structures fall and crumble, and new ones take their place. This is a fact of civilization that has been with humanity since before the beginning of recorded history. Marxist theory takes this concept of change and asks an important question of it. Why do societies revolutionize themselves? Marxist theory, in this particular vein of thought, concerns itself with society’s motivations for change. In answer to this question Marxists use two distinct yet related forms of Materialism, Dialectical Materialism and Historical Materialism. They seek to use these concepts to apply logic to a seemingly random event, and there are indicators in history that this interpretation works. The important question to ask afterwards is do these interpretations still apply in a modern context. First, though, it is important to understand the Marxist concept of how revolution occurs. The Marxist interpretation of Materialism can be roughly broken up into two groupings, Dialectical Materialism and Historical Materialism. The aims of both of these concepts are the same though. Based on Marxist ideals these two concepts aim to explain the development of human history and give concrete motivation as to significant changes in human history. By considering both concepts in tandem one gains a full understanding of the Marxist interpretation of Materialism. Dialectical Materialism is based in two separate concepts, Dialectics and Materialism. Dialectics is one of the three original liberal arts, first developed in the classical world by the Ancient Greeks. (Saksena p543) Together with Rhetoric and Grammar, these liberal arts were developed as a means to fully understand the art of persuasion. Dialectic itself refers to the logic behind the argument, having a sound backing for your points. As such it is heavily grounded in logic. By combining this with materialism, the monist concept that everything in existence is made up of matter, you get a unique understanding of the basic makeup of Marxism. (Saksena p544) This is the lens through which the Marxist views the world, analytical and logical, with all things made up of a base product. When considering this with history, Historical Materialism is formed and Marxist understanding is applied to historical developments. Historical Materialism concerns itself with asking why and how Social progress is driven. The basic idea of this theory is that Human Society is based around how humans work to produce the means to live, and that all actions present in history are intrinsically tied to this. (Sober p310) There is also, in tandem with this, the concept that labour is divided into social classes, and that class division is dependant on the means of production. Finally, in terms of social movements, this theory states that these actions only occur when the dominant class is displaced by a newly emerging one. Eckstein p912) There are a series of ideas that go along with this concept of Historical Materialism. First and foremost is the concept that social progress is directly related to material progress, without some advancement in the process of production, social change will not occur. (Crimmins p523) Innate to this, it should be mentioned, is the concept that humans are involved with production. By tying societal progress intrinsically into manufacturing process, it ties the development of humanity, at its base level, to the worker. The worker then, becomes the means through which social progression is achieved, and also has some power over how humanity develops as a society. This power is not to be ignored, as this power is the central means to change in the Marxist view of history. By giving the workers this power it puts the means to change directly into their hands and makes them responsible for the future, and also for the past. But there is still the question of how this sect of society is motivated to action. Two distinct and yet related forces act in the concept of Historical Materialism, Production Relations and Productive Forces. Production Relations, here, can be understood to refer to the interaction between those producing the product and those paying the labourers to produce the product. (Manicas p241) Productive Forces refer to the actual labour pool that powers the productions. (Manicas p241) Understanding those two distinct terms, there is another sequence of required concepts in Historical Materialism that go along with those two concepts. Production Relations, it should be noted, develop relative to the development of productive forces. Manicas p244) An emphasis on production determines the speed of production force development. In other words, social progression is inversely relative to the way workers are treated. The change, for Marxist theorists, comes from dissatisfaction with the current state of affairs. If the workers are happy they will have no desire to change the situation. If the current state is not in their favor, however, they will be motivated to action. This of course will result, op timally, in a change in society. That is what is central about this concept, the impact it has on society. The theory believes that the structure of a society is intrinsically tied to the mode of production, or in other words the structure of a society is an expression of the mode of production. (Manicas p245) For example, a society built around a production structure heavily dependant on mechanical production will find an increase in the repair and maintenance industry, whereas a society based around manual labour will require a large number of individuals working to achieve its product. Stating that the product developed by a society has an impact on its structure can essentially sum up this whole concept. Moving beyond simply the types of jobs that would be desired, this speaks towards what the educational system of that society would be like, what the pay scale would be, what the living conditions would be at. This is all relative to the skill of the labour and the amount of education necessary to do the job. If the market is based around specialized jobs that require immense amounts of schooling, then the pay scale and standard of living for that society will be higher than a manual labour society which requires little to no education for the job. To put it simply, the more difficult the standard job for the society, the better off that society will be. But what of the problems that would arise form this formation. Critical Marxist theory believes that these concepts are tied in to some of the problems present in societies. Every state, they believe, is an institution of the ruling class. (Mayer p143) As such the laws and values of that state would seek to reinforce the means to profit. They would be utilizing everything down to the structure of the state to optimize the goal of the collective. In a capitalist structure, for example, the value structure is built around profit. As such, according to the Marxist theory, the values and systems inherent to this state would reinforce this ideal. Taking into account modern corporate practices of exporting service and manual labour to other countries where it is cheaper to attain, one sees the profit-based value structure of the capitalist system affecting their policy. The second important factor in this consideration is that State power is usually only transferred through upheaval. Sober p323) This is an extremely destructive means to achieve change, and this should be noted. It does not make it untrue, however. This violent upheaval, combined with the obliteration of the previous system, combine to show the means to change. As upsetting as it may be to think that our system is based on a wholly violent means to achieving its end, every indication through history shows this factor working time and again. Finally, this particular mode of production has to give out at some point as new technologies discover more efficient means of production. Thus the final belief of the Marxist Historical Materialist perspective is that when current production relations no longer function, progress is either stalled, or there is revolution. (Stiermotte p112) So the final catalyst, the straw that will break societies back, will be the death of production. This idea makes perfect sense when taken in terms of the whole of the argument. If motivation for change were present in the means to production and the relations between producer and employer, then the death of production would mean the end of that society producing. That is a perfect catalyst for setting off change. If there is no profit then the system, inherently built on it, fails and must be replaced. This is the full circle of Marxists Historical Materialism, the concept that when production fails, revolution will occur to re-imagine production systems to increase profit and thus advance that society. The hard question, however, is to what extent does this view of Historical Materialism apply today? Is it still a prescient means to understand societal development? If it is then perhaps it can be applied to see the future of society, maybe as a means to ensure we are not heading down a path we would not agree with. The system that comes afterwards is based in the values of those who are generally in opposition to the ruling class they have just ousted. As such they, logically, would seek to be as contrary to the original as possible. Before revolution occurs, one must contemplate what the most likely scenario would be and whether it is favorable. But before that can even occur, the question of whether this theory does indeed apply or not must be answered. As such there are four basic questions that must be answered in the affirmative for this to be the case. Is the motivation still present? Is there still a need for change? To this the answer would be affirmative. Present still in this world are primary causes for change; poverty, social inequality. These motivators are still present as a means to have the â€Å"poor† class desire change. The best example would be the rising unemployment rate in the UK. As is stated in the article, the rate of employment in the UK has descended from a â€Å"low unemployment economy to the high unemployment reality of the present era. (Leslie p371) So not only is there the sort of motivator to initiate change, the situation is actually getting progressively worse. Are there current social classes? Is there immense inequality between the classes? Yes, there are rich and poor classes in our current time and there is a distinct difference between them. Moreover the capability to move between classes is but a faint hope and it is not often that this occurs. Are these classes developed based on the mode of production? If one observes the poorer classes and their particular jobs, then one must see that their poverty is indeed tied in to the mode of production. Most often the only means of employment is to work for the rich class in a company owned by them. (Mayer p144) The ruling class here is utilizing the labour forces as a means to production. Is the state an institution of the ruling class? Does it enforce their values? In a capitalist society the values are based around profit. The values inherent to the state thus reinforce the values of the ruling class, the desire for profit before any other considerations. This is seen through the mutually declining state of employment and also health care in the UK. Through putting profit before the welfare of the employee, considerations that should normally be considered mandatory are lost by the wayside. Healthcare, in particular neonatal health care, declines as suicide and para-suicide rates increase. (Cook p73) All together this forms the impression of the powers in charge of production being unmoved by the plight of the labour force they are using. The factors for change, as outlined through Historical Materialism, are still present in current culture. Action, however, is not present. But this action, according to Historical Materialism, will only be sparked when production fails. This failure will either stall production or bring about revolution. Production, at this time, has not stopped so the final motivation for revolution is not present. But Marx never did suppose that any progress would be instantaneous, rather he stated quite the opposite. His logic was grounded in the development of the world from a proto-communist/tribal society, through ancient civilization, to feudalism, to capitalism, and finally to the ideal communist state. Marx’s worldview is that humanity is slowly progressing towards a communist state of peace, yet by his own admission; the world actually began in a proto-communist state, and then progressed away from this. Is the end state of Communism actually a step back, or is it a cyclical view of the world wherein, upon reaching the communist state at the end, the cycle begins anew and humanity goes back to ancient civilization. Progression does not necessarily entail constant forward movement in the Marxist view, only that a new class will replace the ruling elite, and society will be accordingly supplanted with a new structure. Nowhere does it emphasize this progress as a positive development. What we must really ask ourselves is, is this the future we want for our society? Do we want to go back to where we began? Do we want to develop the same way we have for years or have the myriad of problems that have arisen accordingly shown us that perhaps searching for a better means to development is the best option? Do we want history to repeat itself, or do we want to shape it?

Comparing Relationships in Susan Minots Lust and Coraghessan Boyles C

Comparing Relationships in Susan Minot's Lust and Coraghessan Boyle's Carnal Knowledge  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      "After the briskness of loving, loving stops"-Susan Minot  Ã‚  Ã‚   This quote from Minot summarizes the love affairs in her short story "Lust" and T. Coraghessan Boyle's short story "Carnal Knowledge." The protagonists in these stories go to great lengths to please their significant others hoping to find loving, fulfilling relationships. They make sacrifices and relinquish certain degrees of power to find happiness, only to discover that this happiness is temporary. Both authors use literary techniques to enhance these themes. The short stories "Lust" and "Carnal Knowledge" maintain that relationships that lack an honest, loving foundation and a lack of balance of power end abruptly and cause pain and loneliness. The love the narrator hopes to find in Minot's "Lust" continually eludes her. The story consists of a young female narrator recollecting her numerous sexual experiences with numerous partners. Her motivation is not licentious, nor is she proud of her experiences, she is only struggling to find comfort and emotional fulfillment. Unfortunately, her experiences only take her further and further from the love and acceptance she yearns for. Sex initially makes the narrator feel loved, appreciated, and valued. She loved feeling "safe, at rest, in a restful dream" (258), as she would feel when he would first begin touching her with tender caresses. It becomes almost an addiction for her, a necessity for happiness. Ironically, it is an addiction that does not satisfy the need. Like a drug, sex brings the narrator a temporary means of escape and a temporary "high", yet after the the "high" is gone, she feels empty, alone, and ... ...d the last few paragraphs have no mention of Alena. This also helps to demonstrate how she flew in and out of Jim's life. Her effect on him was very short-lived and impermanent, and he is able to return to his old way of life after she is gone. Both "Lust" and "Carnal Knowledge" examine very brief love affairs. The relationships depicted in each story lack a solid foundation, therefore they cannot last. Power imbalances exist in these relationships that intensify the pain of the protagonists. Both characters initially derive great pleasure from the relationship only for it to slip away and leave them feeling empty and lonely because "After the briskness of loving, loving stops." Works Cited Boyle, T. Coraghessan. "Carnal Knowledge." The Compact Bedford Introduction to Literature. Ed. Michael Meyer. 5th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2000. 242-255.

Jim’s Nobility in Huck Finn

Houlihan 1 Mike Houlihan Ms. Fledderman English H April 15, 2013 Nobility at the Bottom of Society Someone who is noble is defined as a distinguished person noted for feats of courage and heroism. The character of Jim in  Huckleberry Finn  by Mark Twain certainly fits that description. He risked his life in order to free himself from slavery, and in doing so, helps Huck to realize that he has worth. Huck becomes aware of Jim's sense of love and humanity, his basic goodness, and his desire to help others.Jim faces discrimination based on the color of his skin and is faced with the challenges of racist stereotypes. Twain characterizes Jim as a sincere yet naive character, representing the runaway slave as a fatherly figure who maintains his integrity as being one of the sole characters of the novel who wouldn't be described as hypocritical, despite the fact that Jim also retains a childlike mentality. Throughout the novel Jim expresses nobility through his selfless nature, his stre ngth to good while resisting evil, and his ability to bear with any misfortune that may befall on him or his loved ones.Mark Twain allows Jim to break racist stereotypes by showing more human qualities of him when he expresses his selfless nature. by assuming a role as a father figure to Huck, who he watches over throughout the bulk of the novel. Jim protects Huck by shielding his view from the dead body that turned out to be Huck's father Pap. â€Å"I went in en unkivered him and didn't let you Houlihan 2 come in? Well, den, you kn git yo money when you wants it kase dat wuz him† (320).This show of consideration and paternal care for Huck makes Jim out to be more humane. Jim demonstrates his humanity by not only caring for Huck physically, but also mentally and emotionally in shielding him from a sight that could have been mentally or emotionally strenuous on someone like Huck. Jim’s actions are partly a result of his inability to distance himself from the society whi ch he has been conditioned. There are countless opportunities for Jim to leave Huck during the story, yet he remains by Huck’s side.When Huck and Jim are separated in the fog, Jim says â€Å"When I got all tired out wid work, en wid de callin you, en went to sleep, my heart wuz most broke because I was los, en I didn’t kyer no mo what became er me or der raf† (85). Jim’s freedom is then not worth the price of Huck’s life, and let’s people know that he would readily risk his life for Huck. Twain represents Jim as a paternal figure who maintains his integrity as being one of the only sincere characters of the novel, while contrasting this quality with the typical stereotypes of an uneducated slave during the American slave era.Jim is one of the sole characters of the novel who wouldn't be described as hypocritical, for he has the integrity to do what’s right when everyone around him choose not to. After Jim and Huck decide to travel tog ether on the Mississippi river; the pair has to depend on each other for survival as they encounter  people who cause obstacles and jeopardize Jim’s freedom. For example when Jim is forced to accompany the king and the duke during their scams he says â€Å"But Huck dese kings o ourn is jus reglar rapscallions; dats what dey is deys reglar rapscallions† (153).Although Huck is simply putting on an act and appeasing them in order to prevent turmoil. Jim thinks that it is ridiculous for someone to be entitled to a servant and recognizes that this is wrong by calling them â€Å"rapscallions†. This could also be twain making a jab at slavery, which is Houlihan 3 ironic because Jim has been a slave all his life without asking questions. When Jim talks about his family, he mentions his daughter whom he had hurt due to the misunderstanding that she was deaf and dumb; this proves to be pivotal point in the novel to see what kind of man Jim truly is. Oh, she was plumb de af en dumb, Huck, Plumb deaf en dumb en I’d ben a treatn her so† (156). Jim, like most fathers wanted his child to have manners and due to his ignorance of his daughter’s condition hurt her, for he believed she was just being rude. After coming to the realization of her condition, he begins to feel guilt for being unintentionally cruel. By being simple minded and at the very bottom of the social order, Jim is able to see right wrong, while others who claim to be above him cannot see this. Jim continues to show his nobility by enduring the hardships that he is faced with throughout the novel.He talks about how he feels to Huck to the extent where he forces Huck to stop and think over how he treated Jim. After talking down to Huck after playing a trick on him, Jim tells Huck how he feels and Huck even thinks that â€Å"I wouldn't done that one if I'd a knowed it would make him feel that way† (142). After thinking this, Huck himself subverts the racist stereo type by humanizing Jim and acknowledging that the black man has the capacity to feel, and Huck allows his mood to be negatively influenced by the thought that he hurt the feelings of a man he considered his friend.Jim's condition as a human being is improved even more when Huck considers Jim as his friend, making him equal to a white boy. By making Jim equal to himself, Huck is able to humanize Jim and break the cultural perception that Jim is bound to. Another example of how the book illustrates this theme is when Tom kept Jim locked up as a slave when he clearly could have been set free at any moment. Tom was aware Jim was freed from being a slave but decided to keep it a secret. This caused Jim unnecessary poor treatment. Houlihan 4He was forced by Tom to do things he didn’t want to do. This is shown when Tom forces Jim to have rats, spiders, and snakes in his room. Tom says to Jim â€Å"But Jim, you got to have ‘em- they all do. So don’t make any more fuss a bout it† (263). This was cruel because Jim was forced to live with the creatures that traumatized him in his past. Though Mark Twain breaks some racist barriers with Jim, other stereotypes about blacks in the era are reinforced throughout the novel and Jim still maintains the strength to endure.Throughout the novel, Mark Twain both reinforces and disputes racist stereotypes of the time period through the portrayal of Jim as a noble character. Jim is depicted as a genuine yet unsophisticated character. Twain represents Jim as a selfless, paternal figure that is able to see right from wrong and maintains his integrity as being one of the only sincere characters of the novel. Twain contrasts this quality with stereotypes typical of an uneducated slave during the American slave era.Though he is a stoic character, Jim is able to span the entire novel as a father figure who protects Huck both physically and emotionally and, even after Huck plays tricks on him, forgives Huck and cont inues to protect him. Nobility is reinforced when Jim's simple nature is revealed in various parts throughout the novel. Jim's gullibility and his language relay the stereotypes of the antebellum south that blacks were somehow not people and were much lower than whites. These ideas become relinquished in the end, for readers are able to see the distinguished human being that Jim characterized.

Capital Punishment A Deadly Mistake Essay - 1342 Words

Johann Kailey-Steiner English 1020 Ms. Campbell 15 November 2016 Capital Punishment: a Deadly Mistake Robert Ladd raped, robbed, and murdered Vickie Ann Gardner in 1996 and was sentenced to death based on sufficient DNA and fingerprint evidence at the crime scene. Ladd was later given an IQ test that would determine his mental capability. If he tested below 70, he would be considered, scientifically, mentally ill. He received a score of 67. This should have disqualified Ladd from capital punishment under the Supreme Court case Atkins v. Virginia which determined that, â€Å"Executions of mentally retarded criminals are ‘cruel and unusual punishments’ prohibited by the Eighth Amendment.† (Atkins v Virginia). Texas has been widely ridiculed for their highly subjective approach to determining mental illness. They based their assessment on Lennie Small from Of Mice and Men rather than scientific evidence of mental disability. So Texas continued to seek death regardless of the proof because Ladd didn’t act like Lennie. In a l etter written on January 5, 2015 to Hamilton Nolan, a journalist for Gawker.com, Ladd wrote (with assistance), â€Å"It s clear that the judge in my case R. Schell, and the 5thcir (sic). are clearly BIAS in their opinion again this is about REVENGE and justice† (Nolan). On January 29, 2015, 28 years after his sentence, Ladd was executed via lethal injection. His last words were â€Å"Stings my arm, Man!† Texas got their revenge. This case is a prime example of theShow MoreRelatedCapital Punishment : A Deadly Mistake1244 Words   |  5 Pages CAPITAL PUNISHMENT: A DEADLY MISTAKE. Imagine being asked to state your last words. What would they be? The execution of a human being is irreversible and should not be allowed anywhere. The death penalty is a crime in itself and should not be used as a form of punishment. 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